Autoimmune Thyroid Disease & Hyperthyroidism

📋 Key Information Summary

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Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in Australia, accounting for 60–80% of cases; Hashimoto's thyroiditis is the leading cause of hypothyroidism.
Anti-TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb/TSI) are pathognomonic for Graves' disease and distinguish it from other causes of thyrotoxicosis.
Classic clinical features include weight loss, heat intolerance, tremor, tachycardia, anxiety, and diffuse goitre with or without Graves' orbitopathy.
First-line investigation: serum TSH, free T4, free T3 (MBS-rebated); TRAb confirms Graves' disease and may obviate isotope scanning.
Carbimazole (Mazda®) is the preferred antithyroid drug in Australia; PTU is reserved for first trimester pregnancy and thyroid storm.
Antithyroid drug therapy typically continues for 12–18 months; remission rate is ~50% after a first course.
Radioactive iodine (I-131) is a definitive therapy widely available in Australia; lifelong hypothyroidism is expected in >80% of patients.
Thyroid storm is a medical emergency with high mortality — treat with PTU, beta-blockers, iodine (Lugol's), glucocorticoids, and ICU admission.
Agranulocytosis occurs in ~0.2–0.5% of patients on antithyroid drugs — instruct all patients to present urgently for FBC if sore throat or fever develops.
Graves' orbitopathy requires multidisciplinary management; smoking cessation is the single most important modifiable risk factor.
Pregnancy planning is essential — antithyroid drugs must be adjusted pre-conception; TRAb crosses the placenta and may cause neonatal thyrotoxicosis.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples may have higher prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease with barriers to specialist access in remote areas.
Post-radioiodine or post-surgical hypothyroidism requires lifelong levothyroxine replacement with regular TSH monitoring.

🎧 Audio Brief

Graves Disease and the Thyroid Inferno

A short clinical audio briefing generated from this article — perfect for the commute or ward round.

Introduction & Australian Epidemiology

Autoimmune thyroid disease encompasses a spectrum of organ-specific autoimmune disorders in which the immune system targets thyroid antigens, leading to either glandular destruction (Hashimoto's thyroiditis) or stimulation (Graves' disease). These conditions are among the most prevalent autoimmune disorders worldwide and represent a significant burden of disease in Australian primary care and specialist endocrinology practice.

Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism, responsible for 60–80% of thyrotoxicosis cases in iodine-replete populations such as Australia. It is caused by stimulatory autoantibodies directed against the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor. The incidence in Australia is estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 population per year, with a marked female predominance (female-to-male ratio approximately 5–10:1). Peak incidence occurs between ages 30–50 years.

Hashimoto's thyroiditis (chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis) is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in iodine-sufficient regions. It is characterised by antibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPOAb) and thyroglobulin (TgAb), leading to gradual thyroid gland destruction. Prevalence of TPO antibodies in the Australian population is approximately 10–15% in women and 3–5% in men, though not all develop clinical hypothyroidism.

Australia's iodine status has improved following the mandatory iodisation of bread salt (2009), reducing iodine-deficiency-related thyroid disease. However, mild iodine insufficiency persists in some populations, particularly in Tasmania and parts of Victoria. Autoimmune thyroid disease remains the dominant thyroid disorder encountered in Australian clinical practice.

Feature	Graves' Disease	Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
Thyroid function	Hyperthyroidism (typically)	Hypothyroidism (most common outcome)
Key autoantibodies	TRAb (TSI, TBII)	TPOAb, TgAb
Mechanism	Antibody-mediated TSH receptor stimulation	Lymphocytic infiltration and gland destruction
Goitre	Diffuse, often bruit present	Diffuse, firm, rubbery
Extrathyroidal features	Orbitopathy, pretibial myxoedema, acropachy	Associated with other autoimmune conditions
Australian prevalence	~1–2%	~5–10% (TPOAb positive)

Pathophysiology & Autoantibodies

Graves' Disease — Immunopathogenesis

Graves' disease results from a breakdown in immune tolerance to thyroid self-antigens, predominantly the TSH receptor (TSHR). Pathogenic IgG autoantibodies (thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins, TSI) bind to the TSHR on thyroid follicular cells, mimicking the action of TSH. This activates the Gsα–adenylyl cyclase–cAMP pathway, leading to:

Increased iodine uptake and thyroid hormone synthesis (T4 and T3)
Thyroid follicular cell hypertrophy and hyperplasia (goitre)
Increased thyroid vascularity (bruit on auscultation)

Loss of immune tolerance involves genetic susceptibility (HLA-DR3, CTLA-4, PTPN22 polymorphisms), environmental triggers (stress, smoking, excess iodine, infection, postpartum immune rebound), and immune dysregulation including reduced regulatory T-cell function and Th1/Th17 skewing.

Hashimoto's Thyroiditis — Immunopathogenesis

Hashimoto's thyroiditis is characterised by CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell-mediated destruction of thyroid follicular cells, aided by complement-fixing anti-TPO antibodies. The gland undergoes progressive lymphocytic infiltration, germinal centre formation, follicular cell apoptosis, and fibrosis, ultimately leading to hypothyroidism. A transient thyrotoxic phase ("Hashitoxicosis") may occur during early gland destruction due to release of preformed thyroid hormone.

Key Autoantibodies in Clinical Practice

Antibody	Target	Clinical Utility	Availability in Australia
TRAb (TSH Receptor Antibody)	TSH receptor	Confirms Graves' disease; predicts neonatal thyrotoxicosis; monitors relapse risk	Widely available (MBS item 66827). Third-generation assays (TBII) preferred.
TSI (Thyroid-Stimulating Immunoglobulin)	TSH receptor (stimulatory)	Bioassay; high sensitivity for Graves'. Less commonly requested than TRAb in Australia.	Refer to specialised laboratories
TPOAb (Thyroid Peroxidase Antibody)	Thyroid peroxidase	Present in ~95% Hashimoto's, ~75% Graves'. Predicts progression to hypothyroidism.	Widely available (MBS item 66826)
TgAb (Thyroglobulin Antibody)	Thyroglobulin	Complementary to TPOAb; important in thyroid cancer surveillance (interferes with Tg assay)	Widely available (MBS item 66826)

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Clinical pearl: A positive TRAb in the setting of thyrotoxicosis is sufficient to diagnose Graves' disease without requiring a radioisotope thyroid scan. This is the preferred diagnostic pathway in Australia to avoid unnecessary radiation exposure.

Clinical Features of Hyperthyroidism

The clinical presentation of hyperthyroidism reflects the effects of excess thyroid hormone on virtually every organ system. Severity ranges from subclinical (suppressed TSH, normal free T4/T3) to life-threatening thyroid storm.

Systemic Manifestations

System	Features
Metabolic	Weight loss despite increased appetite, heat intolerance, diaphoresis, increased basal metabolic rate
Cardiovascular	Sinus tachycardia, atrial fibrillation (10–25%), palpitations, systolic hypertension with widened pulse pressure, high-output cardiac failure
Neuropsychiatric	Anxiety, irritability, emotional lability, insomnia, fine tremor, hyperreflexia
Musculoskeletal	Proximal myopathy, osteoporosis (increased bone turnover), periodic paralysis (rare, more common in Asian males)
Gastrointestinal	Increased bowel frequency, hyperdefecation (not true diarrhoea)
Reproductive	Oligomenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, gynaecomastia (males), reduced fertility
Dermatological	Warm moist skin, onycholysis (Plummer's nails), hair thinning, pretibial myxoedema (Graves' specific)
Ophthalmological	Lid lag, lid retraction (sympathetic); Graves' orbitopathy — proptosis, periorbital oedema, diplopia, compressive optic neuropathy

Graves'-Specific Features

Diffuse goitre: Smooth, symmetrical enlargement, often with an audible bruit or palpable thrill due to increased vascularity.
Graves' orbitopathy (GO): Present in 25–50% clinically (mild in most). Smoking is the strongest modifiable risk factor. Clinical Activity Score (CAS) guides management. Sight-threatening disease (dysthyroid optic neuropathy) occurs in <5%.
Pretibial myxoedema: Localised non-pitting dermopathy over the pretibial area. Occurs in ~1–4% of Graves' patients.
Thyroid acropachy: Rare (0.1–1%); clubbing, periosteal new bone formation, soft tissue swelling of digits.

Thyroid Storm — Medical Emergency

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Thyroid storm is a life-threatening exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis with multiorgan dysfunction. Mortality is 10–30% even with treatment. Triggers include surgery, radioiodine in uncontrolled thyrotoxicosis, infection, trauma, iodine contrast, and medication non-adherence.

The Burch–Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS) aids diagnosis:

Unlikely

BWPS <25

Thyroid storm unlikely; consider other diagnoses.

Setting: Outpatient management

Impending

BWPS 25–44

Impending thyroid storm — heightened clinical suspicion, aggressive treatment.

Setting: Hospital admission, close monitoring

Definite

BWPS ≥45

Thyroid storm — hyperthermia >38.5°C, tachycardia out of proportion, altered mental status, multiorgan dysfunction.

Setting: ICU admission mandatory

Investigations

First-Line Thyroid Function Tests

Essential

Serum TSH

MBS Item 66719. Suppressed (<0.1 mIU/L) in overt hyperthyroidism; low-normal in subclinical hyperthyroidism. Normal TSH excludes primary hyperthyroidism.

Essential

Free T4 (fT4)

MBS Item 66719. Elevated in overt hyperthyroidism. Normal fT4 with suppressed TSH = subclinical hyperthyroidism.

Available

Free T3 (fT3)

MBS Item 66719. Disproportionate T3 elevation suggests T3 thyrotoxicosis (early Graves', toxic nodular disease). Request if fT4 normal but TSH suppressed.

Aetiological Investigations

Essential

TRAb (TSH Receptor Antibody)

MBS Item 66827. Positive result confirms Graves' disease. Sensitivity ~98% (3rd-generation TBII assay). Preferred first-line aetiological test — avoids radiation exposure. Also used in third trimester to predict neonatal risk.

Available

TPO Antibodies

MBS Item 66826. Present in ~75% of Graves'. More useful in hypothyroid investigation. Not required if TRAb is positive.

Referral/Imaging

Technetium-99m or I-123 Thyroid Uptake Scan

Shows diffuse increased uptake in Graves' vs. focal uptake (toxic adenoma) vs. low uptake (thyroiditis, exogenous hormone). MBS Item 61343. Indicated when TRAb negative and aetiology unclear.

Available

Thyroid Ultrasound with Doppler

MBS Item 55040. Shows diffuse enlargement, increased vascularity ("thyroid inferno") in Graves'. Useful for nodule assessment and guided biopsy.

Additional Investigations

FBC: Baseline before antithyroid drug therapy (risk of agranulocytosis). Recheck if fever/sore throat during treatment.
LFTs: Baseline — both hyperthyroidism and antithyroid drugs can cause hepatotoxicity.
ECG: Assess for atrial fibrillation, which occurs in 10–25% of hyperthyroid patients.
Bone density (DEXA): Consider in postmenopausal women or prolonged hyperthyroidism — risk of osteoporosis.
Lipid profile: Hyperthyroidism causes low cholesterol; hypothyroidism causes elevated cholesterol.

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FBC monitoring with antithyroid drugs: Carbimazole and PTU can cause agranulocytosis (ANC <0.5 × 10⁹/L) in 0.2–0.5% of patients. Obtain baseline FBC before commencing therapy. Educate all patients to stop the drug and seek urgent FBC if they develop sore throat, mouth ulcers, fever, or bruising during treatment.

Management of Graves' Disease

The three definitive treatment modalities for Graves' disease are antithyroid drug (ATD) therapy, radioactive iodine (RAI), and thyroidectomy. Treatment choice depends on disease severity, patient preference, presence of orbitopathy, age, comorbidities, and local expertise. All patients should be managed in collaboration with an endocrinologist.

Symptomatic Treatment (Initial — All Patients)

Beta-blockers provide rapid symptomatic relief while awaiting antithyroid drug effect.

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Propranolol

Inderal® · Non-selective beta-blocker

Adult dose 20–40 mg PO TDS–QDS; titrate to heart rate response

Paediatric dose 0.5–1 mg/kg/day PO divided TDS

Key notes Also inhibits peripheral T4→T3 conversion. Avoid in asthma, decompensated heart failure.

PBS status ✔ PBS General Benefit

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Atenolol

Noten® · Selective beta-1 blocker

Adult dose 25–50 mg PO daily

Key notes Preferred if asthma/COPD. Does not inhibit T4→T3 conversion.

PBS status ✔ PBS General Benefit

Antithyroid Drug Therapy — Thionamides

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Carbimazole (1st-line)

Mazda® · Thionamide

Adult dose Initial: 15–30 mg PO daily (titrate to severity). Maintenance: 5–10 mg daily. Total duration: 12–18 months.

Paediatric dose Initial: 0.5–1 mg/kg/day PO. Maintenance: 2.5–5 mg daily.

Renal adjustment Not required — drug is hepatically metabolised.

Hepatic adjustment Use with caution; monitor LFTs. Discontinue if hepatotoxicity develops.

Key adverse effects Agranulocytosis (0.2–0.5%), rash, hepatotoxicity, arthralgia. Cross-sensitivity with PTU ~50%.

PBS status ✔ PBS General Benefit

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Propylthiouracil (PTU)

Propycil® · Thionamide

Adult dose Initial: 100–200 mg PO TDS. Maintenance: 50–100 mg daily.

Paediatric dose Initial: 5–7 mg/kg/day PO divided TDS. Maximum 300 mg/day.

Indications First trimester pregnancy (carbimazole is teratogenic — aplasia cutis, choanal atresia). Thyroid storm (inhibits peripheral T4→T3 conversion). Carbimazole intolerance.

Key adverse effects Agranulocytosis, hepatotoxicity (black-box warning — acute hepatic necrosis). Monitor LFTs.

PBS status ✔ PBS General Benefit

Dosing Strategies

Titrating regimen (preferred): Start with higher dose of carbimazole (15–30 mg), titrate down to lowest maintenance dose as T4 normalises. Lower rate of side effects than block-and-replace.
Block-and-replace regimen: High-dose carbimazole (30–40 mg) plus levothyroxine (100–150 µg). Higher side-effect rate; reserved for difficult-to-control cases. Requires close monitoring.

Definitive Therapy

Modality	Indications	Advantages	Disadvantages
Radioactive Iodine (I-131)	Relapsed Graves', large goitre, contraindication to surgery, patient preference. Widely available across Australia (Nuclear Medicine).	Definitive cure in >80%. Non-invasive. Cost-effective. Outpatient procedure.	Hypothyroidism in >80% (lifelong thyroxine). May worsen orbitopathy — avoid if active moderate-severe GO. Contraindicated in pregnancy/lactation (6-month washout).
Total Thyroidectomy	Large goitre, suspected malignancy, severe orbitopathy, patient preference, failed RAI. Endocrine surgeon preferred.	Immediate definitive cure. Avoids radiation. Preferred if coexistent thyroid cancer suspected.	Surgical risks: recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy (1–2%), hypoparathyroidism (1–3%), bleeding. Requires general anaesthesia. Lifelong thyroxine.

Thyroid Storm Management (Emergency)

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Thyroid storm requires simultaneous multi-modal therapy in ICU. The mnemonic "5 Bs" — Block synthesis (PTU), Block release (iodine — give ≥1 hour after PTU), Block conversion (beta-blocker, glucocorticoid), Block enterohepatic circulation (cholestyramine), Block fever (cooling, paracetamol — avoid aspirin).

1

Block Synthesis — PTU

PTU 500–1000 mg loading then 250 mg PO/NG 4-hourly. Preferred over carbimazole as it also blocks peripheral T4→T3 conversion.

2

Block Release — Iodine

Lugol's iodine (8 drops TDS) or potassium iodide (SSKI 5 drops TDS) — give ≥1 hour after first PTU dose to block hormone release from gland.

3

Block Conversion — Beta-blocker + Steroid

Propranolol 60–80 mg PO 4-hourly or IV 1–2 mg slow bolus. Hydrocortisone 100 mg IV 8-hourly (also covers relative adrenal insufficiency).

4

Supportive Care

Active cooling, IV fluids, paracetamol (avoid aspirin — displaces T4 from TBG). Treat precipitant (infection, DKA). ICU admission.

Graves' Orbitopathy — Multidisciplinary Approach

All patients with Graves' disease should be assessed for orbitopathy. Management requires collaboration between endocrinology, ophthalmology, and in severe cases, surgery.

Smoking cessation: Single most important intervention. Smoking doubles the risk of orbitopathy and reduces treatment response.
Mild GO (CAS <3): Selenium 100 µg PO BD (evidence from European trial), artificial tears, sunglasses, monitor.
Moderate-to-severe active GO (CAS ≥3): IV methylprednisolone pulse therapy (evidence-based). Refer to ophthalmology/endocrinology. Consider orbital radiotherapy.
Sight-threatening GO: Urgent IV pulse methylprednisolone. Surgical decompression if no response. This is an emergency.
Teprotumumab (anti-IGF-1R monoclonal antibody) — not currently PBS-listed in Australia; available through clinical trials or private prescription.

Monitoring on Antithyroid Drugs

Baseline

TFTs, FBC, LFTs, TRAb. Document thyroid eye disease assessment. ECG if tachycardic/elderly.

4–6 weeks

Repeat TFTs. Adjust ATD dose. Assess clinical response. FBC if symptomatic.

Every 4–8 weeks

TFTs until stable euthyroid state. Then extend to every 2–3 months.

At 12–18 months

Consider ATD withdrawal. Check TRAb — negative TRAb predicts lower relapse risk (~20–30%). Positive TRAb: relapse risk ~60–80%.

Post-withdrawal

TFTs at 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, then annually for ≥5 years. Relapse most common within first 6–12 months.

Relapse Prediction & Definitive Therapy Decision

Factor	Lower Relapse Risk	Higher Relapse Risk
Goitre size	Small or no goitre	Large goitre
TRAb at withdrawal	Negative	Persistently positive / high titre
Severity at diagnosis	Mild thyrotoxicosis	Severe thyrotoxicosis
Smoking	Non-smoker	Current smoker
Duration to euthyroidism	<3 months	>6 months

Special Populations

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Pregnancy

First trimester: Use PTU (not carbimazole — teratogenic: aplasia cutis, choanal atresia, oesophageal atresia).

Second and third trimester: Switch to carbimazole (lower hepatotoxicity risk than PTU).

Goal: Maintain fT4 at or just above upper reference range. Use lowest effective dose. Overtreatment causes fetal hypothyroidism/goitre.

RAI is contraindicated in pregnancy and for ≥6 months before conception.

TRAb monitoring: Check TRAb at 18–22 weeks and 30–34 weeks. High TRAb (>3× ULN) — alert paediatrics for neonatal thyrotoxicosis risk.

Breastfeeding: Carbimazole up to 20 mg/day is compatible with breastfeeding. PTU may be used but monitor for hepatotoxicity.

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Paediatrics

Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in children (1–5% of all Graves').

First-line: Antithyroid drugs (carbimazole preferred). Higher remission rate in children than adults (~30% after first course).

Carbimazole dose: 0.5–1 mg/kg/day initially; maintenance 0.2–0.5 mg/kg/day.

Definitive therapy: Consider if ATD failure, adverse effects, or non-compliance. Total thyroidectomy preferred over RAI in children <16 years (concern about radiation exposure).

Refer to paediatric endocrinologist for all cases of childhood Graves' disease.

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Elderly

Higher risk of cardiovascular complications: AF, heart failure. May present with "apathetic thyrotoxicosis" — fatigue, weight loss, depression without classic hyperadrenergic features.

Lower threshold for AF screening (ECG). Anticoagulate per CHA₂DS₂-VASc if AF detected.

Subclinical hyperthyroidism is more common — associated with AF and osteoporosis. Consider treatment if TSH <0.1 mIU/L.

RAI is often preferred as definitive therapy in the elderly — avoids surgical risk.

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Renal Impairment

Carbimazole and PTU do not require dose adjustment in renal impairment — both hepatically metabolised.

Beta-blockers (propranolol, atenolol) may need dose adjustment in severe CKD. Atenolol is renally cleared — reduce dose if eGFR <30.

Dialysis patients: thyroid hormone levels may be abnormal without true thyroid disease. Interpret TFTs with caution.

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Hepatic Impairment

Hyperthyroidism itself causes elevated LFTs (cholestatic pattern). Baseline LFTs essential before starting ATDs.

Both carbimazole and PTU are hepatically metabolised. Use with caution in pre-existing liver disease.

PTU has a black-box warning for acute hepatic necrosis — avoid in significant liver disease. Prefer carbimazole with close LFT monitoring.

If liver function severely impaired, consider early definitive therapy (RAI or surgery).

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Immunocompromised

Checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy — ipilimumab, nivolumab, pembrolizumab — can cause immune-mediated thyroiditis with thyrotoxicosis (often preceding hypothyroidism).

ICI thyroiditis is often self-limiting — manage with beta-blockers; ATDs are generally not effective (destructive not stimulatory process).

HIV-associated thyroid disease: may see Graves' disease or atypical thyroiditis. Drug interactions with antiretrovirals possible.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Considerations

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health

Prevalence & burden

Autoimmune thyroid disease affects Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, though epidemiological data specific to ATSI populations remain limited. AIHW data suggest that endocrine disorders overall contribute to significant morbidity. The higher burden of comorbidities — cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease — in ATSI communities may amplify the consequences of untreated or poorly controlled hyperthyroidism.

Remote & regional access

Endocrinology services are concentrated in metropolitan and major regional centres. Remote and very remote communities face limited access to specialist care, nuclear medicine for RAI, and endocrine surgery. Telehealth endocrinology has expanded since 2020 and is supported by MBS items — use this to facilitate specialist review. The RFDS provides emergency retrieval for thyroid storm.

Investigation barriers

Access to thyroid function testing and autoantibody panels is generally available through regional pathology services, but turnaround times may be longer in remote areas. Isotope thyroid scanning requires transfer to a centre with nuclear medicine facilities. Point-of-care TSH testing may aid initial assessment in remote settings.

Treatment considerations

Antithyroid drug therapy (carbimazole) is PBS-listed and accessible in remote areas. However, regular blood monitoring (FBC, TFTs) requires reliable phlebotomy services and pathology access — coordinate with Aboriginal Medical Services (AMS) and community health centres. RAI or surgical management requires transfer to a regional or metropolitan centre with appropriate facilities.

Cultural safety

Engage Aboriginal Health Workers and Liaison Officers in patient education and management planning. Respect family and community decision-making processes. Use culturally appropriate educational resources (e.g., Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet). Ensure follow-up is coordinated through trusted primary health services (AMS, RFDS).

Follow-up & continuity

Hyperthyroidism requires long-term monitoring — reinforce the importance of regular follow-up with the primary care team. Use shared care models between specialist and AMS. Consider longer dispensing intervals and medication management services (MedsCheck, Dose Administration Aids) to support adherence. Register for Closing the Gap PBS co-payment measure to reduce medication costs.

📚 References

1. Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016;26(10):1343–1421.
2. Kahaly GJ, Bartalena L, Hegedüs L, et al. 2018 European Thyroid Association guideline for the management of Graves' hyperthyroidism. Eur Thyroid J. 2018;7(4):167–186.
3. Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016;5(1):9–26.
4. Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017;27(3):315–389.
5. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). Thyroid disorders in Australia. Cat. no. PHE 252. Canberra: AIHW; 2020.
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7. Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis: thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1993;22(2):263–277.
8. Smith TJ, Hegedüs L, Douglas RS. Role of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) pathway in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Pharmacol Ther. 2012;136(3):327–335.
9. Australian Government Department of Health. MBS Online — Medicare Benefits Schedule. Available at: www.mbsonline.gov.au. Accessed 2024.
10. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Iodine supplementation for pregnant and breastfeeding women. NHMRC Public Statement. Canberra: NHMRC; 2010.
11. RACGP. Management of thyroid conditions in general practice. In: RACGP Red Book. Melbourne: RACGP; 2023.
12. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Practice Board of Australia. Culturally safe health care. Melbourne: AHPRA; 2023.
13. Wémeau JL, Sadoul JL, d'Herbomez M, et al. Guidelines of the French Society of Endocrinology for the management of thyroid nodules. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2011;72(4):251–281.